Unlocking the Potential of Battery Charging and Swapping Stations: Achieving Fully Flexible Operation via B2X and V2X Integration

Abstract

The expansion of battery swapping stations (BSSs) for electric vehicles (EVs) is attracting research interest for their capability to swiftly replace depleted batteries, mitigating range anxiety for EV users, and their potential to supply power to the distribution system (DS). As EV adoption grows, an increase in both BSSs and charging stations (CSs) is anticipated. This study introduces a novel concept for the battery charging and swapping stations (BCSSs) offering both charging and swapping services to EVs, alongside ancillary DS support and a variety of flexibility sources. The proposed mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model seeks to maximize station owner's profits by optimizing revenues from EV services and energy sales to the DS, including battery-to-grid (B2G) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) transactions, while considering costs associated with battery degradation and unmet service requests. The model also contains photovoltaic (PV) generation and enhances EV user satisfaction and station profitability through diverse energy transfer services, such as battery-to-battery (B2B), battery-to-vehicle (B2V), vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), and vehicle-to-battery (V2B). The proposed model also considers the time-varying electricity tariff. Simulation results over a 24-h period with 15-min intervals reveal that the battery-to-everything (B2X) and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) flexibility services significantly improve EV satisfaction and mitigate profit loss during high-demand periods, thus greatly improving station versatility.