Nanotechnology-driven enhancement and modulation of immune responses in monkeypox and respiratory syncytial virus nanovaccine research

Abstract

The global health landscape continues to face significant challenges from emerging and re-emerging viral pathogens, notably Monkeypox virus (MPXV) and Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV). Traditional vaccine approaches often fall short in providing robust and long-lasting immunity against these evolving threats. Nano-technology offers transformative potential in this regard, enabling precise modulation and enhancement of immune responses through innovative nanovaccine platforms. This review delves into the latest advancements in nanotechnology-driven vaccine research targeting MPXV and RSV, focusing on the unique capabilities of nanoparticles (NPs) to optimize antigen delivery, stabilize vaccine formulations, and modulate immune responses. For MPXV, promising approaches include mRNA-lipid nanoparticles, antigen-conjugated nanoscaffolds, and virosome-or liposome-based nanovaccines, each demonstrating enhanced antigen stability and potent immunogenicity in preclinical models. RSV nanovaccine development leverages diverse nanoplatforms, such as nanocages, virus-like particles, elastin-like polypeptides, mRNA-lipid NPs, and self-aggregating lipopeptides, enabling precise antigen presentation and robust mucosal and systemic immunity. We highlight how these nanoparticle-based vaccines mimic viral structures, facilitating targeted interactions with antigen-presenting cells, optimizing antigen presentation, and promoting strong cellular and humoral immune responses. Despite these advances, clinical translation remains a challenge, with no approved MPXV or RSV nanovaccines currently available. Critical barriers include the need for further characterization of NP safety and immunogenicity, scalable manufacturing, and the identification of key viral antigens for effective targeting. This review underscores the immense potential of nanotechnology to revolutionize vaccine development against MPXV and RSV, offering insights into current challenges and future directions for the field. The integration of nanotechnology in vaccine research holds promise for more effective, durable, and accessible prophylactic solutions, addressing urgent global health needs.